C1レベルの英語 - 上級

C1のカリキュラム（ユニット別）

Leoで学習する順序で並べた、12のレベルと240の文法項目です。各ユニットには、必須の文法形式と実際の例文が記載されています。関連する細かいポイントはストーリーの中でカバーされます。

1. C1.1 叙述と論評：過去の順序と語り手の声 20 項目

   過去の出来事の複雑な順序

   By the time the police arrived, the crowd had gone and the shop had been closed for an hour. She had been waiting three years for that letter when it finally came.

   past simple + past perfect + past perfect continuous の入れ子構造と、明示的な時間のマーカー

   物語の時制の選択 — すべてのバリエーション

   The train had already left. People were still arriving on the platform, unaware that the service had been canceled an hour earlier. Someone shouted. Nobody moved.

   past simple（事実）+ past continuous（背景）+ past perfect（それ以前の出来事）+ passive（動作主の省略）

   文頭に置く -ed participle（過去分詞）の節

   Founded in 1890, the company still uses the original recipe. Written in a single night, the letter changed everything. Faced with the evidence, he confessed.

   past participle + 補語, + 主節

   複雑な感情を言葉にする

   I'm relieved and furious in equal measure. Part of me wanted to stay, part of me couldn't wait to leave. She was torn between loyalty and self-preservation.

   I'm relieved and furious in equal measure. | part of me ... , part of me ... | torn between ... and ...

2. C1.2 問いかけと前景化：修辞疑問文と強調構文 20 項目

   修辞疑問文 — 答えを求めない問いかけ

   Are we becoming shallow? Why does any of this matter? So where does that leave us?

   段落の最初または最後に置かれる、答えを想定しない直接疑問文

   極端な選択疑問文 — ...それとも全くの逆？

   Is this a breakthrough or the exact opposite? Was it courage, or something else entirely?

   疑問文 + or + 極端な選択肢（the exact opposite / something else entirely / nothing at all）

   what を使った強調構文 — What I need is ...

   What I need is a week off. What surprised me was how calm she was. What he did next changed everything.

   What + 主語 + 動詞 + be + 名詞句または名詞節

   枠組み化された反復による主張

   That is precisely the issue. It is this, above all, that worries me.

   This is exactly what I mean. | That is precisely the issue. | It is this, above all, that ...

3. C1.3 主観を排除した文章：非人称受動態、名詞化、要約 20 項目

   非人称の伝達受動態 — it is said that

   It is said that the house is haunted. He is believed to have left the country. It has been suggested that the data were incomplete.

   it + be + past participle + that + 節 | 主語 + be + past participle + to + 不定詞

   受動態の分詞構文 — Having been told, Being seen as

   Having been warned twice, he had no excuse. Being considered the favorite, she felt the pressure. Having been built on sand, the wall never stood a chance.

   Having been + 過去分詞, ... | Being + 過去分詞, ...

   不可算の抽象名詞 — evidence, advice, research

   There is little evidence for this. We need more research, not more advice. Progress has been slow. She offered some useful feedback.

   冠詞や複数形を伴わない抽象名詞（evidence, research, advice, progress, feedback, insight）

   情報源を1文に要約する

   The gist of it is that nobody read the contract. In essence, they overpaid. The upshot is we start again.

   The gist of it is ... | In essence, ... | Broadly speaking, the argument is ... | The upshot is ...

4. C1.4 確実性の調整：can, dare, may, might と意見の度合い 20 項目

   can を使った固定表現 — as you can see, I can hardly

   As you can imagine, nobody was pleased. I can't say I'm surprised. One can only hope.

   as you can see / as you can imagine / I can't say (that) / I can hardly / one can only

   be set to — 発表された今後の展開

   The company is set to announce record profits. Prices are set to rise again.

   be set to + 動詞の原形

   may well — 強調された譲歩

   He may well be right. That might well explain the delay.

   may well / might well + 動詞の原形

   絶対的な確信

   There's no doubt in my mind that she knew. It's beyond question at this point.

   There's no doubt in my mind. | I'd stake my reputation on it. | Beyond question.

5. C1.5 義務と習慣：ought to, used to, 習性を表すwill 20 項目

   there ought to be — あるべき世界

   There ought to be a law against it. There ought to be more of these.

   there ought to / should be + 名詞句

   ought to have + 過去分詞 — 果たされなかった義務

   You ought to have told me. They oughtn't to have promised anything.

   ought to have + 過去分詞 | oughtn't to have + 過去分詞

   Did you use to — used to の疑問形

   Did you use to live here? Didn't they use to be friends?

   Did + 主語 + use to + 原形 ?

   断言せずに考えをほのめかす

   I'd be inclined to say the timing is wrong. I'm tempted to think she never read it. My instinct is that they'll pull out.

   I'd be inclined to say ... | I'm tempted to think ... | My instinct is that ...

6. C1.6 非現実：混合条件文、wish、条件節の倒置 20 項目

   if + 過去完了 + 助動詞 + have + 過去分詞

   If I had left earlier, I might have caught the train. If she had asked, we could have helped.

   If + 過去完了, 主語 + might / could / would + have + 過去分詞

   3時制の混合条件文

   If we had taken that offer, we'd be living in Lisbon now. If he hadn't quit, he'd be running the department by next year.

   If + 過去完了, ... would + 原形 (現在) / would be + -ing (今まさに) / would be + -ing (明日)

   had と were を使った倒置 — if を使わない条件文

   Had I known, I would have said something. Were she here, none of this would have happened. Had it not been for you, we'd still be waiting.

   Had + 主語 + 過去分詞, ... | Were + 主語 + ..., ...

   考えられる原因をさかのぼる

   My best guess is a wiring fault. It probably comes down to funding. I'd put it down to bad timing more than bad judgment.

   My best guess is (that) ... | It probably comes down to ... | Chances are ... | I'd put it down to ...

7. C1.7 倒置と譲歩：否定副詞の前置と完全な譲歩 20 項目

   頻度を表す否定副詞の後の倒置

   Rarely have I seen such a mess. Seldom does he speak in public. Hardly ever do they answer the phone.

   Rarely / Seldom / Hardly ever + 助動詞 + 主語 + 動詞

   否定句の後の倒置 — under no circumstances

   Under no circumstances should you open that door. At no point did she raise her voice. In no way does this excuse what happened.

   Under no circumstances / At no point / In no way / On no account + 助動詞 + 主語

   not only + 助動詞の倒置

   Not only did he apologize, but he also paid for the damage. Not only was the food cold, it was the wrong order.

   Not only + 助動詞 + 主語 + 動詞, but (also) + 節

   次の話題に移る前に相手の主張を認める

   Granted, the price is high. Admittedly, we should have asked first. True, nobody could have known.

   Granted, ... | Admittedly, ... | True, ... | I'll grant you that

8. C1.8 行動の予測と促進：未来形、仮定法、順序立てた議論 20 項目

   may / might を使った未来進行形 — 進行中である可能性が高いこと

   She might be waiting outside. They may be having lunch right now. He might be sleeping.

   may / might + be + 動詞の-ing形

   by the time + 現在形 — 終点から見た未来

   By the time you read this, I'll be gone. By the time we get there, it will have started.

   By the time + 現在形, 主語 + will (have) + ...

   未来形の選択 — 競合する7つの形

   The train leaves at six. We're meeting them there. It'll be busy. It's going to rain. The minister is to visit next week. This time tomorrow we'll be flying. By June we'll have moved.

   will / be going to / 現在進行形 / 現在形 / be to / 未来進行形 / 未来完了形

   議論の構成を明示する

   There are three points I want to make. Let me take these in turn.

   There are three points I want to make. | Let me take these in turn. | First, ... Second, ... Finally, ...

9. C1.9 命令、省略、反応：命令形、部分否定、口語英語 20 項目

   let + 代名詞 + 原形 — 許可と禁止

   Let them try. Let her finish. Don't let him near the controls.

   Let him / her / them + 原形 | Don't let him / her / them + 原形

   定型表現の前置 — the thing about, the trouble with

   The thing about Marcus is that he never says no. The trouble with cheap tools is that they break.

   The thing about / The trouble with / The problem with / The truth is + ..., ...

   not all / not every — 一般化の否定

   Not all of them agreed. Not everything he said was wrong. Not every problem has a solution.

   Not all / Not every / Not everyone / Not everything + ...

   理由を伴う無関心

   Honestly, it makes no difference to me. I have no strong feelings either way. The new logo? I can take it or leave it.

   It makes no difference to me | I have no strong feelings either way | I can take it or leave it

10. C1.10 正確な指示：上級の代名詞と反論への応答 20 項目

    that of / those of — 学術的な照応表現

    Her salary is higher than that of her predecessor. The results were compared with those of the previous study.

    that of / those of + 名詞句（既出の名詞を指す）

    none — 独立した否定の代用表現

    I asked three people. None knew. We looked for alternatives; none were suitable.

    none（単独で、主語または目的語として、補語を伴わずに使用）

    many of whom / some of which — 数量詞を伴う関係詞

    The staff, many of whom had been there for years, were furious. She wrote six novels, none of which sold well. He had three options, neither of which appealed.

    数量詞 + of + whom / which + 関係詞節

    反論を逆手にとる

    The cost? That's precisely my point. That's exactly why we need to act now. If anything, that proves it.

    That's precisely my point | That's exactly why ... | If anything, that supports what I'm saying

11. C1.11 正確な修飾：形容詞、副詞、文語的な前置詞 20 項目

    慣用的な複合形容詞 — jaw-dropping, well-to-do

    a jaw-dropping performance, a well-to-do family, the above-mentioned clause, an open-minded approach, a long-standing dispute

    評価や使用域（レジスター）を伴う複合形容詞

    最上級 + 後置修飾語 — the best movie ever made

    the best movie ever made, the largest collection in private hands, the worst decision possible, the only one still standing

    the + 最上級（+ 名詞）+ 分詞 / 前置詞句 / 副詞

    複雑な文語的前置詞 — notwithstanding, in the wake of

    Notwithstanding the delay, the project succeeded. In the wake of the scandal, three directors resigned. He stayed on for the sake of the children.

    notwithstanding / by virtue of / in the wake of / for the sake of / at the expense of / pursuant to

    サンドイッチ型の批判

    The research is excellent. My only reservation is the sample size. It works well, except that it's slow.

    The X is excellent. My only reservation is ... | It works well, except that ...

12. C1.12 名詞化、使用域（レジスター）の選択、立場の擁護 20 項目

    名詞化 — the implementation of

    The implementation of the new policy took two years. Their failure to respond was noted. The decision to close came from above.

    動詞 -> 抽象名詞（implement -> implementation, decide -> decision, fail -> failure）

    イギリス英語のスペルと語彙の認識

    UK colour, centre, apologise, travelling, cancelled — US color, center, apologize, traveling, canceled. UK 'I'll take the lift to the flat' — US 'I'll take the elevator to the apartment'.

    -our / -re / -ise / -ll- | lift, flat, lorry, queue, holiday, film, autumn, rubbish, mum

    使用域（レジスター）の選択 — 3つのレベルでの同じ内容

    We had to put off the meeting. -> We had to postpone the meeting. -> The meeting has been postponed until further notice.

    インフォーマル（句動詞、短縮形、省略）/ 中立 / フォーマル（ラテン語由来の動詞、名詞化、受動態）

    本当に重要なことを主張する

    The point is not whether it's legal, it's whether it's right. The real question is who pays.

    The point is not X, it's Y. | What really matters here is ... | The real question is ...

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